Shift on Work Roles for Men and Women

<h1>Shift on Work Roles for Men and Women</h1><p>The article beneath is composed to give data about exposition tests about move on work jobs for people. The paper tests can furnish the two sexual orientations with a one of a kind opportunity to make articles that are remarkable to their specific profession yet in addition to have more applicable data in them than the general population.</p><p></p><p>In the work environment, it's imperative to consider how various individuals may see you dependent on your sex. For instance, in a training setting, it's critical to give data about showing strategies, center and mentality just as objectives and expectations.</p><p></p><p>Of course, since there are no tests that will help measure these parts of what you do, it's critical to ensure that you give the pivotal data that you need. Fortunately, there are better places where you can get the sort of data that you need without going through any cash at all.</p><p></p><p>Some of the article tests accessible on the web for the two sexual orientations incorporate depictions about perfect guardians. Rather than attempting to clarify the jobs of both parent and kid in a couple of sentences, the article test gives supportive data that permits you to expound on the two jobs in an intriguing way.</p><p></p><p>It might be important that a similar data is given in the expositions about move on work jobs for people. For instance, the data about genuine guardians in various work jobs is the equivalent for people, however it's valuable to realize that it's simpler to expound on the contrasts between the two.</p><p></p><p>For a few ladies, the way that they work in a managerial job is totally superfluous. Then again, it's conceivable that they work in such an occupation since they appreciate it and are energetic about their work, and afterward the data about authoritative employments will assist them with thinking of fascinating content.</p><p></p><p>While it might appear as though sexual orientation ought not make any difference in the work environment, the truth of the matter is that it does make a difference. The paper tests about move on work jobs for people are composed from the point of view of the individuals who are accountable for various occupations, however they're composed to address how those employments are diverse for men and women.</p><p></p><p>Whether you're a man or a lady, there are a great deal of article tests accessible that can assist you with improving your activity abilities and increase bits of knowledge that you probably won't have in any case gotten. You can even get a free duplicate of the example article to investigate at.</p>

Diversity College Essay Examples - How to Find Them

Diversity College Essay Examples - How to Find ThemYou can find diversity college essay examples on the internet. It will not be hard to find one and then you will have to write your own. If you are a white male from a good family, you should not worry because you can use diversity college essay examples that are appropriate for people of color, women, and the LGBTQ community.If you want to write a story about a black woman who overcame racism and went to college then you should find a story that is relevant to the topic at hand. It might be the story of a black man who is in a handicap chair who loves his handicap chair. Just make sure that your piece is not stereotyping anyone.A story about a woman who went to a black college should also be one of the diversity college essay examples. The reason why this will be a good example is because it is true. Black women face a lot of discrimination, just like white women and men do.Another story should be about a story about a non-white mal e who was raised by a white family. Again, if you are writing a diversity essay about an actual person and not about fictional characters this will work. A good example would be the story of a white man who came from a white family and went to a black college.Of course there are many other stories to choose from. Diversity college essay examples should include stories about Jews, Irish, black Americans, Asian Americans, white Christians, Hispanics, and many more. It just depends on what type of story you want to tell and if it is based on fact or fiction.Diversity college essays usually focus on groups that are underrepresented. In other words, it will center on a group that is already represented. The purpose of writing a diversity essay is to show how people in that group have been marginalized, which in turn shows that they deserve to be respected just as anyone else does.Good quality diversity college essays are essential to show that these groups deserve the same rights as othe r groups. As a writer you are allowed to write about anything. Whether it is a story about a disabled person or a story about a woman who overcame racism. That is just a piece of the diversity college essay examples that you can use.People love stories. You can tell a great story and make it relevant to the topic at hand. Diversity college essay examples can help you write better stories that are more relevant to the college essays that you are required to write. Make sure that you go through the examples first before you begin writing your own story.

Objectives Of An Argumentative Essay On Being Well Educated Topics

Objectives Of An Argumentative Essay On Being Well Educated TopicsThe objective of an argumentative essay on being well educated topics on the subject of education is to effectively introduce an idea or concepts into the reader's mind. As such, this is considered to be a very powerful method to help people understand. This also helps to counter the things that would otherwise hinder their progress in terms of knowing more and learning more.That is why essays are generally written to cover various topics related to the world in general themes. Thus, the writer has to look for specific subjects that people would generally have an interest in.It is only when you know what you are writing about that you can effectively cover certain topics that could greatly benefit them. You will probably not want to write something that is completely negative or uninteresting. For this reason, you will not want to really spoil the reader's enjoyment with something that is basically not going to get any positive response from them.This is why the topic of education seems to have so many different things to address. Even if you are not a teacher, it is likely that you would have the knowledge and insight to share with the students regarding the topic.In order to make the student feel comfortable as well as enjoy themselves, you will need to look for the best way to do so. Therefore, the essay can often end up being as well written as any other type of written work, if you are able to craft the right ways of approach to the topic.As a first step, you should approach a discussion group or discussion club. These are places where many people gather together to discuss different topics and make connections with others. The key to the success of the essay is that it should be well written, it should make the student look at the essay and relate with it.By following this plan, you can find that it can have an impressive phrase that the student will be able to relate with. Moreover, it wil l have some type of a unique effect that no other essay will have on them.

The Christian Church At Corinth - 891 Words

There would be a level of difficulty for the Christians in Corinth to go from their pagan ways, and follow the ways of Christianity. I did not realize that the church at Corinth were so confused on how to worship god and Jesus Christ. This is why Paul wrote two letters to Corinth and he reminded them of how they should conduct themselves and worship. It is interesting to me that this kind of behavior was in the Christian church, and I can see why Paul was writing to the Corinthians as they were lost and confused. This article is very interesting and I like how the authors wrote it. Paul says in his letter to the Corinthians, â€Å"But I say, that the things which the gentiles sacrifice, a sacrifice to devils, and not to God: And I would not that ye should have fellowship with devils† (1 Corinthians 10:20). In the ceremonies to pagan gods with the help of mind altering drugs, and repeating chanting results in an out of body experience; This is what Paul is warning the church ab out worshiping idols is the same thing as worshiping demons. Paul also talks about cup of lord and the cup of demons, and how a Christian cannot drink of two cups. Another problem that the Christians in Corinth had to overcome was eating meals offered to idols. Paul addresses this problem in his letter, and this article talks about it too. What the author says is interesting, â€Å"They were uncomfortable over meat that had been offered to idols (8:1-13), and they had to be reminded not to attend sacrificialShow MoreRelatedEssay about First Corinthians1503 Words   |  7 Pagesindependence by completely destroying the city of Corinth. For a hundred years the area of the city laid in ruins. Eventually Julius Caesar sent a colony of veterans and descendants of Freedmen to rebuild the city, and in a short period of time a new Corinth was created from the old ruins (Ancient Corinth p. 20). During the rebuilding of Corinth Caesar was assassinated and reconstruction was continued by Em peror Augustus (Background First Corinthians). Corinth is a Grecian city, located on the isthmus whichRead MoreThe Resurrection of the Dead1180 Words   |  5 Pagesthat addresses salient topics and rationalizes Paul’s view of faithfulness to Christ with Corinth citizens. The newly founded church of Corinth was in correspondence with Paul requesting his answers to questions they posed on topics ranging from marriage to the resurrection of the dead; the latter being one of the most highlighted in 1 Corinthians. Paul’s assurance of resurrection illustrates a concern for Corinth as he admonishes their disbelief in resurrection of the dead with a series of explanationsRead MoreI Corinthians : 50 Shades Of Sanctification1626 Words   |  7 Pagesthe New Testament church, its structure, methods, and message. I Corinthians is Paul’s answer to a previous letter he has written to the Corinthians regarding the conditions in the Corinthian church. The picture Paul painted of the early church also includes a problemat ic, non-typical congregation (Utley 18). Paul is not questioning their salvation per say but challenging their sanctification (Wallace). The goal of this paper is to communicate Paul’s dilemma of how a Christian is supposed to conductRead MoreTaking a Look at the Pauline Epistles1507 Words   |  6 PagesThe Pauline epistles are very crucial to the understanding of how a church and a Christian should act. Throughout all the letters, different subjects have been touched creating almost a guide of â€Å"how to’s†. The farewell is especially important as noted in Second Corinthians 13 explains the depth of God’s love to the people and the wrath of doubtfulness. â€Å"since you are demanding proof that Christ is speaking though me. He is not weak in dealing with you, but is powerful among you† (13:3). With correctionsRead MoreThe Legacy Of St. Paul1098 Words   |  5 Pagesis considered the most important Christian to have lived. Paul feared the end of the world, so while travelling, his mission was to convert as many people to this new and miniscule religion before time ran out. Over the course of his later life, after he was converted, he travelled across Europe and the Mediterranean to preach and converse. On his second journey, from 49 AD- 52 AD, significant development of the early church in the towns of Antioch, Athens, Corinth, and Philippi. During Paul sRead MoreThe First Letter of Apostle Paul’s to the Corinthians Essay733 Words   |  3 Pagesthe occasion and purpose of this letter, I want to review a little of what we know of Corinth and its culture and history. Corinth was the capital of Achaia (Powell, 275) and it has been estimated that in Paul’s day the population of Corinth was about 250,000 free persons, plus as many as 400,000 slaves (Barker, 1732). There are four things I want to touch on about this chief city of Greece. Its commerce. Corinth is located on a narrow strip of land between the Adriatic Sea to the west and the AegeanRead MoreThe Lost Letters Of Pergamum1217 Words   |  5 PagesThe Roman Empire, in which the early Church rises in the wake of Jesus’ death, resurrection and ascension, is complex cultural melting pot. Rife with hedonism, the honor/shame structure of the Roman Empire encourage the worship of the Emperor as God and the Empire as his Holy Empire. Against this narrative, the early Church was a counterculture to the ways of the empire and it is against this backdrop that Bruce Longenecker’s The Lost Letters of Pergamum takes place. The Lost Letters of PergamumRead MoreGod s Foolishness Is Better Than Human Wisdom1674 Words   |  7 Pagesthe truth which Paul here proclaimed.We have borrowed this subtitle from Barclay, for it accurately summarizes the argument Paul was about to make. He would use the character of the Corinthian church itself as a demonstration of God s foolishness being wiser than human beings.Many of the earliest Christians were slaves, a majority were poor, most were uneducated; and few of them had any claim to distinction in the wretched world of their day; but they were the roots from which all that is holy andRead MorePauls Letter to the Corinthians Essay1344 Words   |  6 Pagesrely on the missionary trips of its advocates to promulgate news and information. In First Corinthians, Paul’s intention was to spread the new message of God’s Anointed One and change how people led their lives. When Paul made his initial visit to Corinth, he stayed for a substantial amount of time in order to effectively educate the residents of the area. Similar to other letters like his letters to the Galatians, this epistle is Paul’s follow on interaction with the community, in an attempt to clarifyRead MoreEssay on The Pauline Epistles I1141 Words   |  5 Pagesand Paul wrote this letter to further his position in the first letter and to address concerns that arose out of his previous epistles. The second Letter to the Church at Corinth is the supplement of the first. It is due to the same circumstances which called out the first, and to the effects that were produced in the church at Corinth by the receipt of the first letter. (Johnson) Biblical times were not the age of great strides in communication. Letters were very powerful means to convey one’s

Music Is an Art Form free essay sample

It is not a want; it is a need. If you try to imagine yourself without it, you are mound to feel incomplete. For many of us, it has become a necessity of our lives. Music has no boundaries. Music is the expansion Of unlimited reality. Everyone has the liberty to express themselves in which ever way they prefer, through music. It is the most universal of all art forms. And we get to confront it on a daily basis. Music may also involve generative forms in time through the construction of patterns and combinations of natural stimuli, principally sound. Music may be used for artistic or aesthetic, communicative, entertainment, ceremonial or religious purposes and by many composers of music, purely as an academic instrument of study. Music is an art form consisting of sound and silence. Elements of sound in music are pitch, melody, harmony, rhythm, scale, notes e. T. C. We can use music to help us in our spiritual life. Music helps the spiritual seeker to go deep within to get the utmost satisfaction from life, from truth, from reality. The spiritual life, in turn, helps music to offer its capacity and its strength, which is the souls light, to the world at large. Music helps people speak out their feelings in the most convenient way possible. It reaches your heart and soul and brings out your emotions in open in the most appropriate hayrick style. L, myself listen to fast tracks that have high pitch and scale along with a fast tempo to start my day off in high spirits. Songs like those leave you in a cheery and chirpy mood and charges you up for the rest of the day. Music has no political or national barriers either.Any one can express their feelings in whatever way they like in whatever language that is best suitable to them. Genres like RAP and ROCK are best suitable for such political or national criticisms. Every individuals taste in music varies according to their own language, culture, style, choice and mood. Music consists of various genres or instance; the famous ones being Pop, Rock, Jazz, Hip-hop e. T. C. Usually what kind of music one listens to depends highly on the mood of the person. You tend to listen to slow songs to sooth your mind, pop or rock songs to energize yourself and lift your spirits up. In fact there have been researches conducted on whether music can define an individuals personality. It was reported that those who enjoyed music in the Reflective and Complex category, which includes classical, jazz, folk and blues, tend to be inventive, had active imaginations, valued artistic experiences, were tolerant of others, ND politically liberal. Individuals who preferred alternative, heavy metal, and rock music were classified in the Intense and Rebellious category. They were inclined to be curious, risk-takers, physically active, and intelligent.Listeners of Upbeat and Conventional music, which includes country, religious and pop music, were outgoing and cheerful, enjoyed helping others, saw themselves as physically attractive, and held conservative views. Energetic and Rhythmic music consisting of funk, hip-hop, soul, and Electronics attracted people who were talkative, energetic, forgiving, and opposed to conservative ideals. They also thought of themselves as physicall y attractive. Music improves learning in other subjects. Quality music develops aesthetic awareness and sensitivity.It provides a source of enjoyment which enhances the quality of life from early experiences through adulthood and also provides a means for creativity and self-expression. It helps generate a sense of history and cultural heritage and increases understanding of other cultures through music and presents opportunity for visible success and achievement and increases the satisfaction derived from the message conveyed through music and its contents. Music itself is considered as a language. Music and language are related in many ways. Because music stimulates our sense of hearing it is clear that music can, and inevitably does, convey information. I consider that music is, by its very nature, has the power to express everything, whether a feeling, an attitude of mind, a psychological mood, a phenomenon of nature, etc. Although it can be said that music usually tends to express something, this is only an illusion, and not a reality. It is precisely this, which produces in us a unique emotion which has nothing in common with our ordinary sensations and our responses to the impressions of daily life. Music expresses, at different moments, serenity or liveliness, regret or triumph, fury or delight.It expresses each of these moods, and many others, in a numberless variety of differences. It may even express a state of meaning for which there exists no adequate word in any language. In that case, musicians often like to say that it has only a purely musical meaning. They sometimes go farther and say that all music has only a purely musical meaning. My own belief is that all music has an expressive power, some more and some less, but that all music has a certain meaning behind the notes and that that meaning behind the notes is imposed of, after all, what the piece is saying, what the piece is about.If there is disagreement as to what music expresses, there is at least general agreement that music is intended to and does through its form and its content which produces in us emotions, be they strictly musical or extra- musical. So, clearly it gives us stimulus and information that can usually not be conveyed else wise. But not everyone feels that way. For a lot of people, music is just another background experience. According to them it might make their lives a bit more pleasant but its not something to really ponder over. Many music reducers, from big corporations to small homegrown operations, have responded in kind.Whether its the latest mainstream, Hip-hop or boy band or the most recent and popular Indies rock sensation and remixes, the music industry presents only product, not art, because thats what the masses want to hear: something to fill up the empty air, not something to move them. Humans throughout history have used Music to express themselves to define beauty, love, anger, hatred and attain a higher level of meaning and better understanding of themselves and their culture. This art is the most human form of communication and expression. Music has evolved around in the world for centuries among many different civilizations.Although the style and kind Of music Was far more different in olden period in old cultures like India, China and some parts of Middle East then compared to what it is now. Music is made up of 7 main notes. No matter, what part of the world you reside in, and whatever kind of instrument you play, all the music that is created is made of one of the 7 notes. All the 7 notes might have a different name in different parts of the world, but for the performer, they are still the same. Music is a combination of several different languages from different arts of the world.There is no rule against merging two different languages in one song. In fact remixes and mixtures of western and eastern songs have become extremely popular today. Music encompasses mind, body, and feeling. It is universal, cultural and individual. Music is product and process. It is pleasurable and profound. It is evident that if you dont connect to music you are missing a part of life. Like mentioned earlier music consists of no national political or cultural boundaries. You can use it to express yourself in every possible way or you can just listen to it to make you feel good, sooth your mind or simply to cheer oh up!

Valerie Morgan Case Study Essays - Administration,

Valerie Morgan Case Study Valerie Morgan Case Study Partnering Leadership and Controls Margaret Glendinning-Welch December 13, 1999 Abstract Morgan Publications is currently in the leadership crisis stage of the company's evolution. This is characterized by the need for more formal means of communication, unwanted management responsibilities of the founder and increasing conflicts of the department managers. A strong management entity is needed to pull the organization together and assist in setting a direction for the future. This direction includes establishing more formal systems and controls, but without sacrificing department manager's autonomy and creativity, and maintaining a decentralized authority structure. The Problem Morgan Publications suffers from a leadership crisis as evidenced by Valerie Morgan's indecisiveness and a lack of basic management systems. Her desire to be a leader and innovator is hampered by her administrative responsibilities. (Turner & Stevenson, 1986, 779) By divesting herself of the administrative and management role, adopting minor structural enhancements and controls, she could focus on the future and growth of Morgan Publications. These changes can be implemented without sacrificing the ?small business? environment or curtailing the autonomy and creativity of the employees. (Turner & Stevenson, 1986 781) The Leadership Crisis Characteristics of the leadership crisis stage include: increased number of employees causing a requirement for formal instead of informal means of communications, founders being burdened with unwanted management responsibilities, and conflicts between department managers [leaders] increase. (Greiner, 1972, 42). The realization that professional management is needed is coupled with an unwillingness of the founder to step aside and relinquish control. (Greiner, 1972, 42). Morgan Publishing and Valerie Morgan exhibit all these problems associated with leadership in crisis. Morgan Publishing has grown from 10 employees in 1982 to 42 employees in 1986. (Turner 1986, 775) During this time several formal systems were adopted; however, department heads were reluctant to support them. Department managers set goals in the form of budgets, but refuse to substantiate them with requested supportive documentation. (Turner 1986, 776) Valerie Morgan's request for information from her managers translates into a lack of trust or a restriction of their independence to them. (Turner 1986, 776) The system for managing delinquent accounts does not follow established policy and results in advertisements being pulled well after the 30-day limit, usually not until after 90 days. (Turner 1986, 777) Additionally, the sales department is not notified of delinquencies and only finds out when the accounts call to complain. (Turner 1986, 777) As a manager, Valerie Morgan maintains an ?I don't know and I don't care? attitude that leads her to ?ignore the administrative component and just tell someone else to make a decision.? (Turner 1986, 779) She is saddled with unwanted management responsibilities that leave no time for the ?creative, big picture issues? or for developing new product concepts?. (Turner 1986, 767) By and large, day to day decision making is left to the department managers and staff with her being involved in a random, multi dimensional sort of way, with no clear objectives or agenda for her to focus on. Conflicts between departments arise due to lack of communication, clear defined policies, and controls. A salesman will promise special space to one vendor causing the conference department to compromise their position with other vendors. (Turner 1986, 777) The accounting department mails past-due notices to advertisers without warning the sales department. (Turner 1986, 777) The production manager uses a ?pen and paper' method of accounting because the current system does not provide her with needed information to maintain accountability. (Turner 1986, 780) Almost every month the advertising, editorial and production departments are in turmoil over the closeout of the Magazine, due to the lack of an established formal criterion. (Turner 1986, 767) Management in Action Morgan Publish needs to hire a manager who has the necessary knowledge and skills to pull the organization together. (Greiner 1972, 42) By installing a capable manager, Morgan Publications can enjoy a period of growth and direction. (Griener 1972, 42) Job assignments have already become more specialized and some organizational structure is already in place. (Turner 1986, 778) While controls and communication are needed at the strategic level, this should not occur at the cost of departmental autonomy and the decentralized decision making process. Decentralized responsibility and decision making has improved many big firms' response to the

Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Example

Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Example Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay KENYATTA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY STUDY ON INFILTRATION AND SOIL TEXTURE UNDER BANANA AND MAIZE LAND USE SYSTEMS IN GATUNDU CATCHMENT, KIAMBU COUNTY,KENYA KAKAIRE JOEL I56EA/20023/2012 ICEDUNA MARION I56EA/20021/2012 MWM714: FIELD MAPPING AND LABORATORY TECHQNIUES FIELD REPORT COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. MAKOKHA GEORGE TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGES 1. 0 Introduction 1 1. Significance of the study . 2 1. 2 Objectives .. 2 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives . 2 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS . 3 2. INTRODUCTION.. 3 2. 2 Study area .. 3 2. 3 Research design 6 2. 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis . 6 2. 4. Soil Texture 6 2. 4. 2 Infiltration .. 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 8 3. 1 Soil Infiltration Measurements . 8 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .. 13 5. 0 REFERENCES.. 15 APPENDIX 17 Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields .. 17 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field . 0 Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field 10 Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field 11 Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Description of infiltration sites .. 8 Table 2. Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites .. 12 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 iv v 1. 0 Introduction Water is one of the most important factors limiting the growth of plants in all Agricultural systems. In this respect, good water management is necessary in order to solve water related problems such as irrigation and erosion control. Infiltration is the process by which water arriving at the soil surface enters the soil. This process affects surface runoff, soil erosion, and groundwater recharge (Gregory et al. , 2005). The rate at which it occurs is known as infiltration rate which mainly depends on the characteristics of the soil. ( Saxton, 1986) reported that, the major soil and water characteristics affecting infiltration rates are: the initial moisture content, condition of the surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, texture, porosity, degree of swelling of soil colloids, organic matter, vegetative cover and duration of irrigation or rainfall and of these, soil texture is predominant. Therefore the measurement of water infiltration into the soil is an important indication in regard to the efficiency of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of water for plants, improving the yield of crops, minimizing erosion and describing the soil permeability. Land use and land cover changes among other factors have also been reported to infuluence the infiltration rate of soil. According to (Suresh, 2008), for a given soil, the land use pattern plays a vital role in determining its infiltration characteristics. Different land use practices affect infiltration rates in different ways. (Taylor et al, 2009), observed that intensified land use results primarily in a change in soil structure rather than soil compaction. When land is put to certain uses, there is an accompanying change in the properties of the soil and this alters the hydrological balance of the soil. According to (Osuji, 2010) infiltration rates in tropical forests under bush fallow were found to be high compared to arable crop land. In addition, Majaliwa et al. 2010) explains that the change from natural forest cover to tea and Eucalyptus induces changes in top soil properties like exchangeable Magnesium and Calcium, available Phosphorus, soil organic matter, soil pH, and soil structure of sub soil. Furthermore, Land use/type cover influences soil organic matter evolution which is a vital indicator of soil quality and it has implications on soil properties like aggregate stability/soil structure, infiltration and aeration rates , microbial activity and nutrient release (Boye and 1 Albrect, 2001). Additionally a soil’s water retention characteristic, is affected by soil organic matter (SOM) content and porosity, which are significantly influenced by land use type (Zhou et al. , 2008). Gatundu catchment is one of the catchments in Kenya which have experienced soil degradation due to conversion of natural forest to crop land mainly banana, maize and Coffee. This has been fastened by the increasing population in the catchment leaving most of the natural forest cover cleared and replaced by crop land. The result has been massive soil degradation, through loss of plant nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion, river bank degradation; build up of salinity, and damage to soil structure (Bekunda et al. , 2010). Therefore this study aims to determine the degree of relationship between infiltration rates and the land use types in two selected sites under Banana and Maize cropping systems in Gatundu sub catchment. 1. 1 Significance of the study The knowledge of water retention capacity and land use effects is important for efficient soil and water management. Upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated fields, water retention capacity is strongly influenced (Schwartz et al. , 2000; Bormann and Klaassen, 2008; Zhou et al. , 2008). Thus, infiltration rate is an important factor in sustainable agriculture, effective watershed management, surface runoff, and retaining water and soil resources. Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) storm water control practices, and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005) 1. Objectives The objective of the study is to determine the effect of banana and Maize land use practices on water infiltration into the soil in Gatundu catchment 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives 2 1. 2. Describe how different soil types influence water flow through the soil Compare Water movements through the soil at two different sites (Banana and Maize fields) 3. To find out how soil texture influences water infiltra tion into the soil 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS 2. INTRODUCTION This section covers the methods and materials used in the study which include description of the study area, experimental design, field data collection procedures for soil samples and data analysis procedures; laboratory and statistical data analysis using Microsoft office package. 2. 2 Study area Gatundu district is one of the districts located in central province of Kenya at 1 ° 1 0 South, 36 ° 56 0 East; covering an area of 481. 1 km2 and borders Thika district to the East and North and Kiambu East to the South and West (Figure 5). The population density varies from 370 persons per Km2 in Chania and Mangu divisions to 636 persons per Km2 in Gatundu division on the 2008 population projections. Gatundu division is the most densely populated division with 636 persons per square Km. The population over the plan period is expected to increase marginally thereby increasing demand and competition for the available resources like water and land resources (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). 3 ` Figure 5: Map of Gatundu south Topography features of Gatundu district Gatundu district is located about 1520 m ASL at the lowest point and 2280 m ASL at the highest point. There are several permanent rivers and streams that traverse the landscape and these include Ndaruga, Thiririka, and Kahuga. All these rivers flow from the Aberdare ranges to the west and towards the southeast joining River Tana thus forming part of Tana and Athi river 4 drainage system. The train is conducive for gravity system of irrigation (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Terrain Gatundu district is characterized by a ragged terrain, which has had both the negative and positive impacts on the development of the district. The steep slopes and valleys characteristic of the most part of the district, coupled with intensive crop cultivation render most of these areas susceptible to soil erosion making it necessary for farmers to practice terracing which is costly. The conducive environment in the district favour the cultivation of tea and coffee however, other crops like cereals, horticultural crops such as pineapple, mangoes, avocadoes and vegetables plus bananas (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Soils Gatundu district has soils that correspond entirely with typical Aberdare Humic Andosols and Nitosols. These Nitosols have great agricultural potential coupled with the relatively high rainfall regime in the region. Production of tea, coffee, tropical fruits and food crops such as maize, beans and potatoes are the most common sources of income to the households. The hilly terrain of the district has had profound effect on the soils, resulting into low and moderate fertility levels (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Climate The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy seasons, long rains falling in March and May while short rains between October and November. The amount received varies with altitude ranging from 800 mm to 2000 mm with the highest rainfall being experienced in the tea zones. The mean temperature is 200 C with coldest months being June, July and August. The hottest months are February, March and April. Temperatures vary from 80C minimum to 300 C maximum during the year. (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012) 5 2. 3 Research design A completely randomized block design was used for the study. Two treatments were considered (Banana and Maize land uses) and the blocking was landscape position. For Each land use type, only one experiment was carried out because of time. . 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis 2. 4. 1 Soil Texture Five (5) soil samples from both Banana and Maize land uses at different landscape positions were collected. The sampling was done at depth of 0 -15 cm and were collected using a 50 mm diameter auger using a Random sampling Technique as explained by Haghighi et al. (2010) . The 0- 15cm depth was considered because it’s the major agricultural layer and root zone for most of the crops. The five soil samples from each land use were thoroughly mixed to obtain composite soil samples which were taken to Makerere University Laboratory for Analysis. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method described by Bouyoucos (1962) and results presented in percentages of mineral proportions. The samples were passed through an electric shaker for 30 minutes and then the sample was treated with sodium hexametaphosphate to complex Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind clay and silt particles into aggregates. The density of the soil suspension was determined with a hydrometer which was calibrated to read in grams of solids per liter after the sand settled out and again after the silt settled. Corrections were made for the density and temperature of the dispersing solutions. The percentages of mineral fractions were calculated as below; Percent clay: % clay = corrected hydrometer reading at 6 hrs, 52 min. x 100/ wt. of sample Percent silt: % silt = corrected hydrometer reading at 40 sec. x 100/ wt. of sample % clay Percent sand: 6 % sand = 100% % silt % clay Results were reported as percentages of the mineral fraction, % sand, % silt, and % clay. Soil texture was based on the USDA textural triangle. 2. 4. 2 Infiltration The infiltration rate was determined using double-ring infiltrometer as described by American Society for Testing and Materials (1994). It consists of two concentric metal rings. The rings were driven into the ground and filled with water. The outer ring helped to prevent divergent flow. The drop-in water level or volume in the inner ring was used to calculate the infiltration rate. Clock time was recorded when the test began and noted the water level on the ruler at different time intervals as seen in Appendix 1, recorded the drop in water level in the inner ring on the ruler and kept adding water to bring the level back to approximately the original level. The tests were conducted for a period of one to two hours, until the infiltration rate became constant. The infiltration rate was calculated from the rate of fall of the water level in the inner ring as seen in Appendix 1 in the tenth minutes in both the banana field and maize fields. The data was analyzed by drawing graphs of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration. In both cases, curves were obtained. Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3. Soil Infiltration Measurements Soil infiltration measurements were made at 2 sites in Gatundu sub catchment (Plate 1 above). The two sites have the same soil characteristics, therefore they have been classified by the different land uses and land scape positions coupled by other field observations. Sites were selected based on land use, proximity to water source, site accessibility, and soil type. Table 1: Description of infiltration sites Site Location Banana Site Observed and use and field observations Site with Banana plantations, Has some mounds, some trees adjacent to the field, it’s on a higher elevation Maize Site Site with Maize, The site is close to a trench used for moving water, Its close to the road , It’s on a lower elevation Figure 1(Banana land use) and Figure 3(Maize land use) shows that the water infiltrates at a very high rate at the beginning with 1800 mm/hr and 720mm/hr respectively; because the hydraulic gradient is high and then keeps declining with time until it becomes fairly steady after the soils become saturated, which is termed as basic infiltration rate. This is also emphasized by Horton (1940) where he asserts that infiltration becomes constant with time as the soil column reaches fully saturated conditions which occurred at 40th and 49th minute time intervals in Banana and Maize Land use Systems as seen in appendix 1. Rubin and Steinhardt (1963) also showed that the final infiltration rate reached under these conditions is equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil. 8 The steady state in Maize was attained earlier than in banana land use corresponding to 204mm/hr and 450mm/hr respectively. This can be associated to soil disturbances during ploughing and land preparation season after season for annual crops like maize compared to banana field (Perennial) which have less soil disturbances. The scenario under maize land use may lead to soil compaction as a result of continuous cultivation. This is emphasized by Pitt et al. , 2002 and 2008; Pitt et al. , (1999b) who found substantial reductions in infiltration rates due to soil compaction. The implication is that beyond the steady point (saturation point), if more water is applied to the soil, it results into surface water runoff. Infiltration depends upon physical and hydraulic properties of the soil moisture content, previous wetting history, structural changes in the layers and air entrapment. The basic infiltration rate of maize land use is lower than that of Banana land use system as seen in Appendix 1; this can be associated to a number of factors although not conclusive for the attained results; 1. The Initial moisture content; the study was carried out in a rainy season, therefore for saturated soils, the infiltration falls to the aturated hydraulic conductivity almost instantaneously. 2. Considering the type of land use in each of the sites; Soils under Perennials (Banana Land use) are subjected to less interferences in terms of land preparations compared to land under annuals (Maize Land use) which correlates with the obtained results of 450mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively 3. The surrounding of the site; the Maize field is on a lower elevation and near a trench which collects water, therefore itâ€⠄¢s possible that the soils could easily reach saturation 9 Infiltration rate mm/hr 000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Infiltration rate,mm/hr infiltration rate mm/hr Time(minutes) Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field Cummulative infiltration cummulative infiltration,mm 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field In Banana land use, Infiltration was recorded at time intervals of 1, 5 and 10 minutes and in Maize land use it was at 3, 6 and 10 minutes time intervals (Appendix 1) 10 Infiltration rate/hr 800 Infiltration rate mm/hr 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Infiltration rate/hr Time,hrs Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field Cummulative infiltration Cummulative infiltration,mm 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 Table 2 below compares the infiltration rates of two sites, classified according to the texture of the soil profiles in Banana and Maize land use systems. In each set of measurements, the infiltration rate of the Banana field belonging to the sandy clay loam was much higher than Maize field belonging to clay loam because of the variation in the physical properties of the two textural classes. In the banana field, basic infiltration rate was attained at 450mm/hr which is higher than that of maize field, 204mm/hr and this explains the relationship between soil texture, structure and infiltration which was obtained in our results where the Banana field with sandy clay loams having larger pores allowed in more water to infiltrate compared to clay loam with relatively smaller pores. From our results, The banana field reached saturation earlier (40th minute) than the Maize field (49th minute) which deviates from the assumption that the field at lower elevation reaches saturation earlier than the other on the higher elevation, and this case the maize field was on a lower elevation. As it is not possible to vary soil texture independently of other characteristics it is not inferred that the infiltration rates are caused by texture. Table 2 Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites Sample Percentage % Sand Banana Field Maize Field 50 40 Silt 26 26 Clay 24 34 Sand clay loam Clay loam Textural Class 12 4. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Generally from the findings, the two sites registered high basic infiltration rates with banana and maize land use having 405mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively. The two sites as well reached saturation easily because of the amount of water that was held within the soil because of the rainy season. Several factors influenced the test; measuring rapidly changing water levels was difficult especially for one minute time intervals and therefore subject to inaccuracy and the local site features, challenges in elevation and the soils being too soft which kept altering the position of the ruler and varying the depth thus may have affected individual test results. Therefore the study required more data collection and time to be able to sample many sites at different time intervals. For this study, tests were conducted during a rainy period in December, 2012, where the water table was expected to be above most soil layers. However, Infiltration is a key parameter in Watershed management therefore Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) , and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005). Additionally infiltration separates water into two major components surface runoff and subsurface recharge, therefore assessment and Evaluation of runoff risk has assumed an increased importance because of concerns about associated pollution hazards in which pollutants are likely to be transferred from soil to rivers and lakes. The speed of irrigation of fields is based on infiltration tests and data; in surface irrigation, infiltration changes dramatically throughout the irrigation season. The water movements alter the surface structure and geometry which in turn affect infiltration rates; therefore accurate determination of infiltration rates is essential for reliable prediction of surface runoff. As environmental impact assessments are concerned with long-term effects, it is essential that the 13 infiltration data on which they are based should be reasonably stable. For planning purposes it is essential to know the stability of infiltration data. 4 5. 0 REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994, Standard test method for infiltration rate of soils in field using double-ring infiltrometer: ASTM Publication D-3385-94, 7 p. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soils. Agron. J. 54:464-465. Ecology (2005) Stormwater Management Manual for Weste rn Washington; Olympia, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology Water Quality Program. Publication Numbers 05-10-029 through 05-10-033. ecy. wa. gov/pubs/0510029. pdf Gregory, J. H. , Dukes, M. D. , Miller, G. L. , and Jones P. H. (2005) Analysis of double-ring infiltration techniques and development of a simple automatic water delivery system. Applied Turfgrass Science. Haghighi. F. , Gorjiz, M. Shorafa M. (2010). Effects of Land Use Change on Important Soil Properties. Land Degrad. Develop. 21, 496–502. Horton, R. E. , 1940, An approach towards a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 5, p. 399-417. Osuji, G. E,Okon M. A; Chukwuma and Nwaire (2010): Infiltration characteristics of soils under selected landuse practices in Oweri, Southern Nigeria. World journal of Agricultural Sciences 6(3): 322 326 Pitt, R. ; J. Lantrip; R. Harrison; C. Henry, and D. Hue (1999b) Infiltration through Disturbed Urban Soils and Compost-Amended Soil Effects on Runoff Quality and Quantity; EPA 600-R-00-016. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Risk Management Research Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH: 231 pp. Pitt, R; Chen, S. -E; Clark, S. E (2002) Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs; Proc. , 9th Int. Conf. on Urban Drainage (9ICUD). Portland, Oregon. Pitt, R; Chen, S-E; Clark, S; Swenson, J. , and Ong, C. K (2008) Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration; J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg. , 134(5), 652-658. Rubin, J. , and Steinhardt, R. , 1963, Soils water relations during rain infiltration; Part ITheory: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 27, p. 246-251 Saxton, K. E. , W. L. Rawls, J. S. Rosenberger and R. I Papendick, 1986. Estimating generalized soil water characteristics from texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. , 50: 1031-1036 15 Schwartz, R. C. , Unger, P. W. Evett S. R. , 2000. Land use effects on soil hydraulicproperties. Suresh, D. (2008). Land and Water Management Principles: New Delhi, Shansi Publishers Taylor, M. , M. Mulholland and D. Thornburrow,2009. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils Under forestry and Agriculture in the Upper Waikato Catchment. Report: TR/18 http:// www. ew. govt. nz/publications/ Technical-Reports/ TR-200918/ Zhou, X. , Lin, H. S. , White, E. A. , 2008. Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. Catena. 73, 180-188. 16 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields Banana Field Time Reading clock on difference, Cumulative min time, min Infiltration Water Level, Infiltration, Infiltratio rate cm cm n, mm mm/min Infiltration rate mm/hr Cumulative infiltration, mm 12:32 12:33 12:34 12:35 12:36 12:37 12:42 12:47 12:52 12:57 13:02 13:07 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 12. 0 13. 5 13. 8 14. 0 14. 3 9. 4 12. 8 11. 0 12. 0 12. 7 9. 8 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 17. 0 17. 3 17. 3 17. 5 3. 0 1. 5 1. 2 1. 0 0. 7 5. 6 2. 2 4. 0 5. 0 4. 6 7. 5 17 30 15 12 10 7 56 22 40 50 46 75